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The Greatest in the Kingdom of Heaven
1At that time the disciples came to Jesus and asked, "Who is
the greatest in the kingdom of heaven?"
2He called a little child and had him stand among them. 3And he
said: "I tell you the truth, unless you change and become like
little children, you will never enter the kingdom of heaven. 4Therefore,
whoever humbles himself like this child is the greatest in the kingdom
of heaven.
5"And whoever welcomes a little child like this in my name
welcomes me. 6But if anyone causes one of these little ones who
believe in me to sin, it would be better for him to have a large
millstone hung around his neck and to be drowned in the depths of
the sea.
7"Woe to the world because of the things that cause people
to sin! Such things must come, but woe to the man through whom they
come! 8If your hand or your foot causes you to sin, cut it off and
throw it away. It is better for you to enter life maimed or crippled
than to have two hands or two feet and be thrown into eternal fire.
9And if your eye causes you to sin, gouge it out and throw it away.
It is better for you to enter life with one eye than to have two
eyes and be thrown into the fire of hell.
Explanation: RELATIONSHIPS IN THE KINGDOM (18:1-35)
Here Jesus begins the fourth discourse in Matthew, addressing relationships
in the church, the community of the kingdom (18:1-35). Relations
with the state (17:24-27), with one's spouse (19:1-9) and with children
(19:13-16) surround this section. Yet Jesus' teaching on relationships
here especially addresses relationships among disciples. As God's
community, they are to watch out for one another, expressing patience
toward the spiritually young as well as seeking to restore the straying,
gently disciplining the erring and forgiving the repentant.Serving
the Little Ones (18:1-14)
The unifying theme in this section is the importance of honoring
children and others who lack worldly status in the kingdom (vv.
1-5). Those who cause a little child (literally, "little one")
to fall from the faith will themselves be damned-a fate to be avoided
at all costs (vv. 6-9). Not only must we not be the cause of a lowly
person leaving Jesus' fellowship, but we must take the responsibility
to seek those who are straying (vv. 10-14), as God had long desired
his shepherds to do (Ezek 34:1-16). Many church offices today depend
on honor shown to those with higher rank; but rank in the kingdom
depends especially on how we treat those least honored among us.The
Greatest Is the Child (18:1-5)
Compare Mark 9:33-37 and Luke 9:46-48. The disciples are concerned
with an issue naturally prominent in status-conscious Mediterranean
antiquity: who will be greatest in the kingdom (v. 1; compare 5:19;
20:26; 23:11). Jesus declares that the kingdom belongs to children
(compare 19:14). This paragraph urges at least two lessons.
Kingdom Status May Be Inverse to Worldly
Status (18:1-4)
Ancient moralists regularly trotted forth models of heroes and statesmen
for their students to imitate; Jesus instead points to a child.
More so then than today, children were powerless, without status
and utterly dependent on their parents (Harrington 1982:74). Yet
we must imitate such people of no status, people who recognize their
dependence (compare France 1985:270). To "turn" (NIV change)
reflects the Jewish concept of repentance (as in Jer 34:15); compare
John 3:3, 5.
Embracing the Weak, We Embrace Christ
(18:5)
True disciples are "little ones who believe in" Jesus
(18:6; compare 10:42), out to make Christ great alone. In Jesus'
day parents loved children, but children held little status. Jesus
calls us to notice and welcome the "nobodies," to esteem
those without status or social respect.
Causing a Little One to Stumble
(18:6-9)
Compare Mark 9:42-50 and Luke 17:1-2. Causing one to sin, or literally
to "stumble," meant causing the person to fall from the
way of Christ and be damned (as in Jn 6:61; 1 Cor 8:9). Matthew
often uses the Greek term in the same manner as here (Mt 17:27;
26:31; compare 5:29-30; 11:6; 13:41; 16:23; Mk 9:42-47).
God Will Avenge the Little Ones, Whom He
Favors (18:6-7)
The cruelest legal punishment in Jesus' day was crucifixion, but
this image of drowning represents a Roman punishment more horrifying
to Jewish hearers than crucifixion and one only rarely tolerated
among them (Jeremias 1972:180; for an exception see Jos. Ant. 14.450).
When people in a community had much grain to grind, they took it
to the community mill, pouring it between an upper and lower millstone.
Jesus refers here not to the lighter millstone turned by a woman's
hand but to the heavier community kind turned by an ass-heavy enough
to take one quickly to the bottom of the sea (Deissmann 1978:81;
compare 1 Enoch 48:9). Jesus says this punishment would be an act
of mercy compared to what is in store for those who turn little
ones from Christ's way-be they arrogant university professors, torturers
enforcing Islamic law or gossipers within the church.
Avoiding Hell Is Worth Any Price (18:8-9)
To paraphrase Malcolm X out of context (which is unfortunately how
he is usually quoted), we must avoid hell "by any means necessary."
Here the image shifts from others as the cause of stumbling to personal
responsibility. Because Judaism abhorred self-mutilation (Dalman
1929:227), this is an especially stark image of the cost one must
be willing to pay to avoid spiritual death. Enter life was standard
shorthand for "enter the life of the coming age" (compare
19:17). The language of losing limbs was reminiscent of the price
martyrs paid for their devotion to God (2 Macc 7:11; 4 Macc 10:20).
According to a common Jewish belief (as in 2 Baruch 50:2-4; compare
2 Macc 7:11; 14:46), a person with missing members would be resurrected
in that form before being restored.
The Parable of the Lost Sheep
10"See that you do not look down on one of these little ones.
For I tell you that their angels in heaven always see the face of
my Father in heaven.
12"What do you think? If a man owns a hundred sheep, and one
of them wanders away, will he not leave the ninety-nine on the hills
and go to look for the one that wandered off? 13And if he finds
it, I tell you the truth, he is happier about that one sheep than
about the ninety-nine that did not wander off. 14In the same way
your Father in heaven is not willing that any of these little ones
should be lost.
Explanation: Go After the Straying Sheep (18:10-14)
Compare Luke 15:3-7. The similar parable in the context of Luke
15:1-32 emphasizes Christ's pursuit of the lost sheep (see also
Mt 9:36; 10:6); in this context, however, the parable summons those
who share God's concerns to pursue the lost sheep (Jeremias 1972:39-40).
By his ingenious arrangement of the material, Matthew demonstrates
that overbearing leaders unwilling to forgive the repentant fall
into the same category as those who caused the stumbling to begin
with. Matthew opposes leaders in the religious community who are
more concerned with their own reputation and position than with
the needs of the people (20:25-28; 23:5-12; 24:45-51).
God cares for each believer, even the weakest. This paragraph begins
and ends with God's care for his sheep (18:10, 13-14). Although
scholars have proposed various interpretations for verse 10 (for
example, that angels simply means the spirits of the little ones
after death, Acts 12:15; Mt 22:30; 2 Baruch 51:5, 12; Carson 1984:401),
the majority view-and the most satisfactory interpretation of this
passage in light of ancient Jewish ways of speaking-is that it refers
to guardian angels (see Davies and Allison 1991:770-72). The guardian
angels of these children were of the highest rank, indicating their
special place before God (compare Jeremias 1971:182; Meier 1980:203-4).
In view of the full Palestinian Jewish background, verse 14 even
more clearly reiterates that "it is not God's will for even
the very least to be lost" (see Jeremias 1971:10, 39 and 1972:39-40;
compare 2 Pet 3:9).This text summons those who share God's agendas
to go after those who stray. It is not enough not to cause stumbling;
we must also actively seek to prevent anyone from stumbling. Higher-status
urban people generally looked down on shepherds (b. Sanhedrin 25b;
Jeremias 1972:132-33; MacMullen 1974:1-2, 15), but biblical heroes
like Moses, David and Amos had been shepherds (Ex 3:1; 1 Sam 16:11;
17:15, 28, 34-37; Amos 1:1; 7:14-15), and the Bible especially portrayed
God in these terms (for example, Ps 23:1; 78:52; Is 40:11). A hundred
represents an average-size flock (Jeremias 1972:133). Contemporary
evidence indicates that shepherds and cowherds did leave their flocks
or herds to search for lost animals (1 Sam 9:3; Diog. Laert. 1.109;
Hock 1988:139); often shepherds would leave sheep with other shepherds
(compare Lk 2:8; Bailey 1976:149). Like God, a true shepherd for
God will search for the straying sheep (Ezek 34:4, 11).
When I returned from college, I went to visit a friend who had always
been faithful in church attendance and witnessing. He had left the
church a year before, yet no one from the church had so much as
called to see how he was doing. Whether it was because he was single
or because his income was minimal I do not know, but he became one
of many examples I saw of wounded Christians neglected by our churches.
We cannot ultimately make people's decisions for them, but we can
certainly help them. Former members who no longer attend church
and the people who pray for salvation at our altars and then leave
remain our responsibility as Christ's church. God does not send
them just to improve our statistics and self-esteem.
A Brother Who Sins Against You
15"If your brother sins against you, go and show him his fault,
just between the two of you. If he listens to you, you have won
your brother over. 16But if he will not listen, take one or two
others along, so that 'every matter may be established by the testimony
of two or three witnesses.' 17If he refuses to listen to them, tell
it to the church; and if he refuses to listen even to the church,
treat him as you would a pagan or a tax collector.
18"I tell you the truth, whatever you bind on earth will be
bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth will be loosed
in heaven.
19"Again, I tell you that if two of you on earth agree about
anything you ask for, it will be done for you by my Father in heaven.
20For where two or three come together in my name, there am I with
them."
Explanation: Discipline and Forgiveness (18:15-35)
The paragraph on discipline fits closely with the preceding paragraph
on seeking the straying sheep and the paragraph before that warning
against causing little ones to stumble. It also fits with the following
story about conditional forgiveness. By holding discipline and grace
in their proper tension (with a greater but not imbalanced emphasis
on grace), Matthew summons the church to practice tough love.Addressing
Stumbling Blocks Seriously (18:15-20)
Compare Luke 17:3. We must pursue the straying sheep (Mt 18:10-14),
but certain very exceptional circumstances demand expulsion of wolves
in sheep's clothing who may not wish to leave (vv. 15-20; compare
7:15-23). In this context of forgiveness to the greatest possible
extent (18:21-27), however, our ultimate goal must be restoration
whenever possible, even when we must expel someone from the church
(compare vv. 19-20; 1 Cor 5:5; 2 Cor 2:5-11; 1 Tim 1:20). The greatest
sin of this context is being a continuing stumbling block to others
(18:6-7, 15), which must include unwillingness to accept them back
(vv. 28-33; compare vv. 1-14)-a sin that results in damnation (vv.
34-35). The principle would apply to many kinds of sin, but in this
context such a sin, whether committed by those expelled or by those
expelling others, is most probably an unrepented and continuing
sin against the community or its members.
Admonish the Brother or Sister Privately
First (18:15)
Although Jewish teachers preferred that the offender seek forgiveness
first, Jewish law also emphasized proper giving and receiving of
reproof (as in Sipre Deut. 1.3.2), which continued until the offender
repented or decisively repulsed the reprover (Moore 1971:2:153).
Rabbis emphasized that reproof was to be private whenever possible
(as in b. Sanhedrin 101a); a sage could thus rule that publicly
shaming one's fellow warrants exclusion from the coming age (m.
'Abot 3:11). The Dead Sea Scrolls also emphasize this sequence:
private reproof, then before witnesses, and finally before the gathered
assembly (compare Schiffman 1983:97-98). Public admonition was reserved
for the severest of circumstances (compare Gal 2:14).
Witnesses Must Gather Evidence (18:16)
Although we hope for reconciliation, we must gather evidence in
the proper order in case we later need proof of what transpired.
As community centers, synagogues doubled as local courts, a function
they maintained when evaluating internal disputes in Diaspora Jewish
communities (see comment on 10:17); Christians transferred the same
function to churches (1 Cor 5:4-5; 6:1-5). Later Jewish teachers
regularly echoed the judicial requirement of Deuteronomy 17:6-7
and 19:15; under such rules to speak evil of another without supporting
witnesses warranted a public beating (Belkin 1940:267). The requirement
of two witnesses remained standard judicial procedure among Christians
(2 Cor 13:1-2; 1 Tim 5:19-20).
The Church Must Discipline False Christians
(18:17)
Jesus' repeated condemnations of "hypocrisy" apply to
professed disciples, not just to the religious establishment of
his day (24:51). If all else fails, the Christian community must
publicly dissociate itself from a habitually sinning professed Christian:
neither outsiders nor the sinner should continue under the delusion
that this person is truly saved. Thus one should treat such a person
as a tax gatherer (9:9; 21:32) or a Gentile (5:47; 6:7; 20:25)-unclean
and to be avoided. Although lesser forms of discipline existed (as
in 1QS 6.25 vs. 5.16-17; 2 Thess 3:6), this discipline was full
excommunication, implying spiritual death (1 Cor 5:5; 1 Tim 1:20;
Tit 3:10-11). Professing Christians never repudiated by the church
have perpetrated many evils throughout history, bringing shame to
the body of Christ.
In Such Cases the Church Acts on God's Authority
(18:18)
God authorizes the Christian judicial assembly that follows these
procedures to act on the authority of heaven. The unrepentant person
has already left God's way and cannot be restored without repentance.
The verb tenses allow (though do not demand) the meaning the context
suggests: the earthly action follows the heavenly decree (compare
Mantey 1973). By removing an unrepentant sinner from the Christian
community, believers merely ratify the heavenly court's decree (see
Keener 1991a:141-43; in Jewish courts, compare t. Rossashana 1:18),
removing branches already dead on the vine (compare Jn 15:2, 6).
Bind and loose refer to the judicial authority of gathered Christians
to decide cases on the basis of God's law. Most scholars thus recognize
that this passage applies to church discipline (Cullmann 1953:204-5;
R. Fuller 1971:141). The more popular use of "binding"
today in many circles (exercising authority over the devil) resembles
instead an ancient practice in the magical papyri-also called "binding"
(see note on 12:29)-of manipulating demons to carry out a magician's
will. (The Bible does support Christians' authority to cast out
real demons-compare comment on 17:17-but the only "devils"
in this passage are fully human ones, and they are being cast out
of the church!)
Witnesses Are to Pray, Not Act Vindictively
(18:19)
Given the context, the two or three gathered for prayer in verses
19-20 must be the two or three witnesses of 18:16. Whereas in Deuteronomy
17:6-7 the two or three witnesses were to be the first to cast stones,
here they are to be the first to pray. While this could refer to
the negative prayer of execration (which may have been more of a
curse-compare 1 Cor 5:5), in this context of forgiveness the prayer
may represent a prayer for ultimate restoration (though compare
1 Jn 5:16). Jewish excommunication even in its long-term form was
normally reversible if repentance took place (p. Mo`ed Qatan 3:1,
11; though compare the extreme cases in 1QS 7.1-2, 16-17, 24-25).
Jesus Himself Is the Presence of God (18:20)
The Parable of the Unmerciful Servant
21Then Peter came to Jesus and asked, "Lord, how many times
shall I forgive my brother when he sins against me? Up to seven
times?"
22Jesus answered, "I tell you, not seven times, but seventy-seven
times.
23"Therefore, the kingdom of heaven is like a king who wanted
to settle accounts with his servants. 24As he began the settlement,
a man who owed him ten thousand talents was brought to him. 25Since
he was not able to pay, the master ordered that he and his wife
and his children and all that he had be sold to repay the debt.
26"The servant fell on his knees before him. 'Be patient with
me,' he begged, 'and I will pay back everything.' 27The servant's
master took pity on him, canceled the debt and let him go.
28"But when that servant went out, he found one of his fellow
servants who owed him a hundred denarii. He grabbed him and began
to choke him. 'Pay back what you owe me!' he demanded.
29"His fellow servant fell to his knees and begged him, 'Be
patient with me, and I will pay you back.'
30"But he refused. Instead, he went off and had the man thrown
into prison until he could pay the debt. 31When the other servants
saw what had happened, they were greatly distressed and went and
told their master everything that had happened.
32"Then the master called the servant in. 'You wicked servant,'
he said, 'I canceled all that debt of yours because you begged me
to. 33Shouldn't you have had mercy on your fellow servant just as
I had on you?' 34In anger his master turned him over to the jailers
to be tortured, until he should pay back all he owed.
35"This is how my heavenly Father will treat each of you unless
you forgive your brother from your heart."
Explanation: Forgiveness (18:21-35)
On verses 21-22, compare Luke 17:4. This parable's point is that
our fellow disciples (vv. 28-29) are Christ's representatives no
less than we are (vv. 5-6), and God will avenge their harsh treatment
at the hands of those who claim his mercy for themselves.
Our Forgiveness Should Be Unlimited (18:21-22)
Judaism also stressed forgiveness, though some teachers saw the
need to limit forgiveness to three instances of premeditated sin,
pointing out that repentance was otherwise not genuine (ARN 40A).
But Jesus here reverses the principle of 490-fold (compare Gen 4:24
LXX) or seventy-sevenfold (Gen 4:24, where LXX uses the exact phrase;
Carson 1984:405) vengeance, demanding unlimited forgiveness toward
the truly repentant.
God's Grace Is the Model for Forgiveness
(18:23-27)
Jesus portrays the magnitude of God's grace in terms that would
have stretched his hearers' imagination: each of us owes God more
than we could ever repay. Galileans were quite aware of some features
of royal courts outside Palestine, and Jesus presents such a setting
to emphasize the severity of the punishment (Derrett 1970:35). Later
Jewish parables frequently include a king as a symbol for God's
majesty (for example, t. Berakot 6:18; Johnston 1977:583). No one
can offend our moral sensibilities as much as everyone offends the
moral sensibilities of a perfect God!Servants could refer to the
king's high officials, like provincial satraps (Jeremias 1972:210,
212; Via 1967:138). Then again, servants could also be tax farmers
working for the king; in earlier days some Gentile tax farmers would
bid on collecting taxes for the king and could generally turn a
profit-provided everyone paid their taxes (Derrett 1970:37; B. Scott
1989:270). Because tax farmers were responsible to collect the taxes
for the king, they could become quite ruthless in their efficiency.
Business documents from Jesus' day sometimes depict peasants with
such overwhelming tax indebtedness that they fled their own land
(N. Lewis 1983:164-65; Avi-Yonah 1978:216; M. Grant 1992:90).
At the appropriate time of year the king wanted to settle accounts
with his servants. Although the talent's worth varied in different
periods, ten thousand talents represented between sixty and one
hundred million denarii, or between thirty and one hundred million
days' wages for an average peasant-a lot of work. The combined annual
tribute of Galilee and Perea just after the death of the repressive
Herod the Great came to only two hundred talents (Jos. Ant. 17.318;
Jeremias 1972:30); the tribute of Judea, Samaria and Idumea came
to six hundred talents (Jos. Ant. 17.320). This fact starkly reveals
the laughably hyperbolic character of the illustration: the poor
man owes the king more money than existed in circulation in the
whole country at the time! The man was a fool to get so far in debt,
and the king had been a fool to let him get away with it. Jesus
could compare God with a father (Lk 15:12) or landowner (Mt 21:33-37)
so merciful that hearers would consider him shamelessly indulgent.
So here he compares God with a king who let a subordinate get too
far into debt to ever pay him back. The grace of God is so deep
and unimaginable that it repeatedly bursts the bounds of Jesus'
metaphor.Selling the man into slavery would recover virtually none
of the loss, though it might abate some of the king's anger: the
most expensive slave recorded would sell for only a talent, the
average being one-twentieth to one-fifth of that (Jeremias 1972:211).
Jewish custom prohibited the sale of women and children, but Jesus'
hearers recognized that a pagan king wouldn't care about such just
technicalities (compare m. Sota 3:8; t. Sota 2:9; Jeremias 1972:180,
211; Derrett 1970:38; Via 1967:138-39). In all, the king was bound
to lose at least 9,999 talents (as much as 99,990,000 days' wages,
or roughly 275,000 years' wages for an average worker) despite the
sale. Perhaps this was one reason the king canceled the debt at
the pitiable sight of the fool offering to pay it all back.
Unforgiveness Toward a Fellow Servant Betrays
Arrogance (18:28-30)
When poor crops or other circumstances forced a ruler to forgive
taxes, he did so with the understanding that his people would respect
his benevolence. If he released his subordinate ministers' debts,
they in turn must release the debts of those indebted to them. This
principle was widely known, and the first servant should have understood
it (Derrett 1970:42); but as we have seen, this servant is a fool.
Although creditors could come up with money quickly by demanding
immediate payment on loans (Stambaugh and Balch 1986:72), the sum
the other man owes the first servant is impossibly small compared
to what that higher official owes the king. Perhaps the sum is so
small that the first man previously overlooked it. Yet this first
servant, perhaps still determined to repay his debt to the king,
has now decided to become ruthlessly efficient in exacting what
is owed him-a sum less than one-fifth of the minimum he himself
would have fetched on the slave market. In other words, the forgiven
servant has failed to embrace the principle of grace.
Once the unforgiven man is jailed, he is unable to settle his own
debts with the king (it is still the time of accounting-Derrett
1970:41); he also is away from his active duties, costing the king
more money. Further, he must depend especially on his relatives
and political allies-and perhaps the king himself, as his patron-to
pay his way out.
The Consequences of Unforgiveness (18:31-35)
Although the other servants offer no money to release the imprisoned
man, they are distressed or "grieved" (the same Greek
term as in 17:23; 19:22; 26:22) and do not hesitate to report the
forgiven servant's act, which has now cost the king (and thus ultimately
them) still more money (Manson 1979:214). Ancient documents indicate
that this practice of imprisoning debtors was legal-and that officials
could severely punish those who abused it (Deissmann 1978:269-70).The
first servant's debt is reinstated, and he is handed over to the
torturers. Jewish law forbade torture-though exceptionally cruel
persons were known to practice it (as in Jos. War 2.448)-but pagan
rulers customarily employed torture against tardy officials to extort
money from their friends (Jeremias 1972:212). Yet who would be so
politically naive as to come to the rescue of one who had obviously
fallen from the king's favor? The magnitude of the debt was simply
unpayable by any means, and the man would never escape the torturers.
Forgiveness must issue from the heart (18:35)-it must be sincere
(compare Is 59:13). God has forgiven us; if we fail to show grace
to others who have repented-guilty parties in a divorce, former
gang members, adulterers, homosexuals, gossipers, crafty politicians-then
this text simply promises us hellfire (compare Mt 5:7; 6:12, 14-15).
One need not agree with all of Marcus Garvey's views to appreciate
his indictment of professed Christians who reject Christ's teachings
on love and forgiveness: "If hell is what we are taught it
is, then there will be more Christians there than days in all creation"
(Garvey 1923:27).
